African Media Structures and Content

African Media Structures and Content Free Online Research Papers A liberal pluralist approach to understanding African media structures and their content Understanding African media structures and their content can be very complex especially taking into consideration the fact that the continent has embraced democracy. This is mainly so because the media in Africa has mainly two extremes functions. On the one hand the media play a â€Å"watchdog† role and on the other it play public relation service to the government. Given these two extremes of media structures it is evident that not any media approach can help one to understand media structures within such a context. However it is also a fact that given the democratization of the African continent, the media must inform citizens on matters of public policy by presenting and debating alternatives. Hence the liberal pluralist approach appears to be the best approach in understanding African media structures because it looks into the media as a ‘watchdog’ that may uncover and publicize political corruption, other abuses of power, and inept policies. However it is also crucial that the problems of the media in Africa, such as the crisis of power, the crisis of ownership and the crisis of resources are acknowledged. It is pivotal that a liberal pluralist approach that is only interested in ending state ownership and control of the media without considering alternatives be avoided. By and large what is important is that a liberal pluralist approach reminds journalists and state leaders that they are accountable to the nation. Introduction Understanding media structures from an African perspective is tantamount to recognizing political developments over the last decade of the 20th century throughout the African continent. Historically most if not all countries in the African continent used to be colonies of western and European countries. However the last years of the 20th century, most African countries witnessed a rise in the democratization of their governments. This resulted in the phasing out of one party states and dictatorship. Most if not all countries started calling for free and elected democratic governments throughout the African continent. It is imperative to mention from the onset that the media are among the forces that have shaped and continued to define the establishment of democracy in Africa. It is also crucial to point out that in spite of the significant role of the media in the development and consolidation of democratic governance in Africa, there have been several influences where states misused or completely did not respect the role of the media in society. As a result it become difficult if not impossible to assess and understand how media influences politics of the day. It therefore becomes critical to evaluate the importance of media structures in the wake of African democracies. The theoretical approach that can make this evaluation resourceful is the liberal pluralist because of its â€Å"watchdog† focus and interest in upholding and protecting individual freedom in the face of government indoctrination. As a result of the above discussion this essay will endeavour to find out why a liberal pluralist approach to media appear the most insightful theory to understanding African media structures and their content. To achieve this goal this essay will first try to assess the role of the media in the democratization of Africa. In the same token the essay will also rewind a little bit by looking at the rationale behind the liberal pluralist approach. But it will be unfair to discuss African media structures without putting the entire media structures challenges into context. Hence the essay will try to discuss everything from the perspective of the three major crises of the media in Africa as identified by Paul A. V. Ansah (Ronning, 1994:02-11). Media and African democracy The demise of one party regimes and development of multi party systems and democracy in Africa resulted in a demand for more democratic structures (Ronning, 1994: 02). There are many theories and definitions of democracy and the process of democratization. With the emphasis on the role of the media in democracy, Winseck in Fourie and Oosthuisen (2003) characterized democracy as the historical process of eliminating totalitarianism in the state, civil society and in economic practices. It is clear that through the media and access to information and the formation of a strong public opinion about the values of democracy, the media play a crucial role in the democratic process (2003:417). Fourie and Oosthuisen argue that apart from the adoption of democratic, political and legal frameworks, democracy also means and involves the processes that allow the procedures of achieving the democratic goals of society to be opened up to citizen participation through [the media] (ibid). It is also critical at this stage to point out that to live in a democracy and to live democratically, means that the adoption of rules and laws of a society are shaped through the media that are open to all. Fourie contends that it is not enough to say that [a country] have a democratic constitution, a democratically elected government, democratically institutions and so forth, what is further needed is to continuously debate all those issues in the interest of the public and in the interest of the well-being of society through the means of the media (2003:419). Hence the demand for freedom of expression and the need for independent and critical media become imperative in Africa (Ronning, 1994:02). It will be an understatement if not a mistake to take it for granted that the media have a democratic role to play in Africa as a result of the dawn of democracy in the continent. A liberal pluralist approach which looks at whether the media fulfill the role of promoting a free exchange of ideas and opinions of informing the citizens in such a way that they are able to form opinions in a climate of independence must be taken if one is to understand the media structures. It is crucial to acknowledge that in most African countries the state used to control the media in all respects. Hence the role of the media in this continent is still mainly dominated by public service ideology. Thus the problematic role of the market in relation to the media has been underplayed, and consequently too little attention has been paid to a discussion of the media in relation to citizen’s rights (Ronning, 1994: 03). As a result of this development there are two main variations on the role of the media in an African context. The two are clearly defined by Ronning (1994) who see on the one hand, African critiques of the existing media who felt that strong state control only can be met by introducing market forces, and on the other hand government who see their influence of the media threatened and fear that they will loose control over the flow of information have had a tendency to regard all forms of independent media be they commercial or alternatively as mouthpieces for a political opposition. Considering some African governments’ perspectives on the role of the media it is very significant that one takes a liberal pluralist approach because it endeavours to closely observe and monitor the government activities. This is also important taking into task that the new democracies in most African countries need to be nurtured and preserved. To this effect McNair (1995) argues that the [media] should be free from government control and government influence, and there must be a free market for ideas and information. In other words, liberal pluralist approach shed some light on the exact relationship between the state and the media focusing on the implication of that relationship to rights of individuals. Hence the media becomes the ‘watchdog’ or â€Å"the fourth estate through which the governing elites could be pressurized and reminded of their dependency on majority opinion† (Bennet, 1982:40-41). It is crucial at this stage to point the root or the origin of most if not all of Africa’s two main conflicting views and perspectives about the role of the media in society. One of the reasons that most African countries are wary of the media is the legacy left by their former colonizers. Most of the media structures during colonialism was used not in the interest and advantage of African countries. Hence the new regimes today feel that the media must play a developmental role. It is a general norm that most if not all African states â€Å"advocate the positive use of the media to promote national development, autonomy and cultural identity† (Fourie, 2003:247). But this kind of theory is very much open to manipulation and abuse and can end up being used to the disadvantage of the media and democracy at large. Development theory is open to abuse and manipulation because certain liberties of the media should be made subordinate to the achievement of national development and economic development (Fourie, 2003:274). Some of the factors that makes development theory open to manipulation and abuse as discussed by McQuail in Fourie (2003) are that the state should be able to restrict the media if economic interests and development needs of the society are at stake, and that to protect development objectives, the state has the right to intervene by restricting and censoring the media. Hence in the latter factor state subsidies and direct control are therefore justifiable. Obviously these kinds of thinking pose several major problems for the media structure to operate as required in a democratic manner. To understand why the watchdog role of the media is relevant and necessary one also need to acknowledge the challenges the media face in the African continent. The problems were clearly captured b y Paul A. V. Ansah who â€Å"pinpointed three major crises of the media in Africa; namely the crisis of power, the crisis of ownership and the crisis of resources† (Ronning, 1994: 3-19). The crisis of power According to Ronning (1994) the crisis of power has two sides. One is related to weakness of the African states and the other is related to weakness of the media themselves. Ronning argues that weak states are particularly suspicious of the media as this are seen as tools of sowing of dissident and as a result the states tried to control the media with the help of a â€Å"variety of techniques ranging from outright censorship and oppression to more subtle means which often combine ownership with a system of economic awards to those in the media who tow the line, and reprisals against those who do not† (1994: 04). This perspective is also shared by Tetty (2001) who argues that a lot of governments in the African continent continue to impose judicial and extra judicial barriers on journalists and media houses in a manner which defeats the professed goals of democratic governance and the purpose behind constitutional provisions of a free press and freedom of expression. However the new democratic media are very sharp and resilient in reporting any incident of authoritarian abuse visited on pro-democracy activities. Hence the media have been very active in exposing activities within the state that would otherwise have been unknown to the citizenry (Tettey, 2001: 10). Tetty argues that it is through this kind of information that the populace is able to measure the pronouncements of politicians against their deeds, and hence make informed judgements about the political future of those individuals. In this regard the media can be seen to play a development role because the likelihood of exposure is also instrumental in, at least making government officials more circumspect in their activities. Moreover the media also impose a certain measure of accountability on the part of government officials that they did not have to worry about in the past (Tetty, 2001:10). In these processes of democratization, the media play a central role by mediating between views and opinions. Ronning contends that this way of using the media contrasts with the manner often â€Å"employed in societies with weak states, where the media are linked directly to the state apparatus, and where they are often used for promoting various forms of personality cults of the head of state and other prominent politicians (1994: 04). Ronning also argues that the weakness of the African media in all aspects make itself vulnerable to be used in such undemocratic ways by the state. Obviously the fact that the media reach a small proportion of the population can be an advantage to the media. In other words government can let the media to broadcast or report unnoticed and unchecked if they know that they only reach a small number of audience. But that same advantage can be turned upside down by the state depending on the influence of target audience of the media. For instance, if the media target intellectuals the state can monitor its content. On the other hand the major disadvantage is that the state is the major news source. As a result the media have to rely on the state for the supply of news content. Hence if a news media is viewed in a negative light the supply of news comes with hidden strings attached. It is from this background that Tetty contends that in most African democracies, â€Å"the parameters of freedom of expression and of the press continue to be determined by how well the contents of the particular print or electronic medium portray power brokers in a positive or, at least neutral light (2001:12). Practically this means that in the case where the state wishes are not fulfilled the media will be victimized. The state can starve the media concerned of news and advertising revenue by not placing government advertisements. Tetty argues that these acts of state intimidation continues to be the case even though there are legal provisions for dealing with cases of unsubstantiated or libelous reporting (2001:12). He maintains that it is ironic that several years after independence, a lot of African countries continue to retain colonial laws, which were used to intimidate anti-colonial activists, including some of the current leaders of these countries. Tetty contends, â€Å"These anachronistic laws have stayed on the books because they now serve the political purpose of the post-colonial ruling elite. They have been employed under the guise of the rule of law and state security to undermine press freedom and freedom expression, as well as to intimidate journalists† (2001:15). Moreover the professional media organizations are also weak in terms of underdeveloped infrastructures and distribution systems. In most cases journalist received poor training that result often in them becoming extended public relations officers for government officials. These facts have a negative impact on how journalists report their news. In many instances they will just go with what the government officials give them because they do not have enough resources to do further research and investigations of their own. Ronning contends that in such trying circumstances the media has little ability to present their case in times of crises as there are few parallel media outlets, and they cannot count on support from other media in the country, which would be the case in societies with a fully developed media structure (1994:04). As indicated earlier in this essay, weakness in terms of financial viability makes most of the private media not to be really independent. As a result they tend to push particular, not always objective, political agendas as more powerful partners dominate them. Tetty argues that in a free democratic society, the media’s credibility tends to be called into question, when they present themselves as â€Å"disinterested surveyors of the political scene but when in reality their views and claims are tainted by narrow ethnic or political trappings, quite at variance with the interest of the nation which they tout as their motivational and call to service† (2001:22). Tetty further contends that in the worst scenarios the manner in which some of these media present their views has stretched the bounds of adversarial politics to the point where animosity appears to define the relationship between the state and journalists (ibid.). According to Tetty (2001) such circumstances led the citizen to begin to wonder whether the media are engaged in a campaign of vilification that would open up political opportunities for them when the current regime is replaced. It is obviously clear that once the citizen start to have such a negative perception about the media its credibility is at stake. It is also clear that much of the public is alienated by the extreme negativity which characterizes some of the contents from the media as acknowledged by The independent, a private Ghanaian newspaper (Tetty, 2001:22). Crisis of media ownership In the middle of who and how the media must report is the crisis of media ownership. According to Ronning (1994) the African crisis of ownership has three aspects. One is that the media in Africa to a large degree, in some way or other, are owned or economically controlled by the state. The result of this arrangement is much often that the media will be the mouthpiece of the government. The second is that international conglomerates often partly control the independent media with corporate interests in the national and regional economies. It is mainly from this side where the media try to play the â€Å"watchdog† role over the government. But in the worst case is when the media take a pure pessimistic negative stance. The last aspect of media ownership is concerned with the so-called alternative media. Alternative media are often owned by small trusts, which again are controlled by a small group of allies and friends or are totally dependent on one person’s dedication (Ronning, 1994:04). Ronning contends that alternative media are faced both with being economically weak due both to low penetration in that they cater for special interests, have little access to advertising and lack proper distribution system (ibid.). Practically, in South Africa we have the Mail Guardian, which is a good example of this kind of ownership. Originally this newspaper, which had some foreign backing, catered for sophisticated readers that were mainly composed of intellectuals and academics. Hence the newspaper used to have great support of advertising revenue that comes from tertiary institutions. As such it used to play a very independent and active â€Å"watchdog† role over the government activities. However after the newspaper experienced financial problems and eventually bought by Trevor Ncube the paper has to change its content drastically for it to survive the government relations. As a result the aggressive and investigative approach towards the government that the newspaper used to take has been softened in favour of advertisement revenues from the government. According to Ronning (1994) solutions to the crises of power and ownership have in a number of instances been sought through the establishment of various organs which represent a form of compromise between direct state control or ownership and private ownership such as press councils and media trusts. Ronning argues that the Zimbabwe Mass media Trust which controls among others, the majority of shares in the country’s largest newspaper group, the national news agency, the regional newspaper project and the country’s largest chain of bookstores is one of the most elaborate structures of this nature (1994: 04). Last year (April 2003), the South African government successfully launched a media structure to this effect through the Presidential Press Corps. In summary â€Å"the Presidential Press Corps was born out of engagements between the South African National Editors Forum and the government during 2001. It [was] recognized that while, as in any democracy, there is a necessary tension between the government and the media, this need not be characterized by animosity as all sides are working towards the same goal of building a vibrant democracy that faces up to the challenge of reversing poverty and underdevelopment. It [was] agreed that the countrys most senior political writers should form into a corps which would, in a systematic way, be able to access information and gain a greater understanding of the work of government†(http//www.gcis.gov.za) Ronning warns that structures such as this point to dangers inherent in a situation where â€Å"the dividing line between government interests and [journalists] independence are unclear and often carry with them a large degree of self-censorship† (1994:05). This fact can be cleary understood if one looks into the Code of Conduct of the Presidential Press Corps (PPC) especially conducts ‘b’ and ‘d’: a. Normal adherence to journalistic principles and ethics b. Observance of on/off record, embargo agreements c. Protocol in briefing room (cell phone interruption, rowdiness, etc) d. Broadly accepted protocols and standards of behaviour in relation to state functions. (Source: http//www.gcis.gov.za) To make matters worse, in addition to the above, government reserves the right to adopt its own sanctions against any PPC member who is deemed by his/her peers to have violated the Code of Conduct. The crisis of resources According to Ronning (1994) the crisis of resources pertains to all levels of the media. It includes the experience and education of media personnel in Africa. It is a general and accepted fact that most of Africa’s media personnel levels of experience and education are generally low by international standards. Ronning argues that poor levels of experience and education are more problematic when it comes to electronic media. This is ironic considering the fact that radio is the most used and viable medium in Africa. The shortage of material resources is obviously one of the major disadvantages, which hamper the development of the media and also make the media vulnerable to political and economic pressure. For instance economical and technological disadvantages prevent most African countries to have as many community radio and television stations as they would like. Conclusion It is a fact that African politics and government structures can be very difficult to understand especially after the continent embraced democracy. The same can be said when it comes to understanding media structures and their content. This is mainly so because the essay has showed that the media in a democratic Africa has mainly two extremes functions. On the one hand the media play a â€Å"watchdog† role and on the other it play public relations service to the government. Given these two extremes of media structures it is evident that not any media approach can help one to understand media structures within such a context. However it is also a fact that given the democratization of the Africa continent, the media must inform citizens on matters of public policy by presenting and debating alternatives. Hence the liberal pluralist approach appears to be the best approach in understanding African media structures because it looks into the media as a ‘watchdog’ that may uncover and publicise political corruption, other abuses of power, and inept policies. However it is also crucial that the problems of the media in Africa, such as the crisis of power, the crisis of ownership and the crisis of resources are acknowledged. A liberal pluralist approach that is only interested in ending state ownership and control of the media without considering alternatives will not shed valuable light. This has been experienced when certain media were freed from state control only to be swallowed by international interests. Hence Africa media becomes the dumping zones for old and often inferior western content. By and large what is important is that a liberal pluralist approach reminds journalists and state leaders that they are accountable to the nation. Research Papers on African Media Structures and ContentBringing Democracy to AfricaRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XQuebec and Canada19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in Capital

Free Essays on Cognitive Therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy helps improve people’s moods and behavior by changing their way thinking; also, how they interpret events and talk to themselves. This form of psychotherapy helps guide people into thinking more realistically and teaches them coping strategies to deal with their depression. Cognitive therapy is in most cases a short- term treatment that can have long-term results. I will discuss depression in adolescence and how it effects personal adjustments, which may often continue into adulthood. I will also discuss depression in the elderly. There are different approaches to treating depression, the main approach that will be discussed is cognitive behavioral therapy, which is a way to break the cycle for depression. What is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy? Cognitive behavior therapy helps people break the connections between difficult situations and their habitual reactions to them. This can be reactions such as fear, rage or depression, and self-defeating or self-damaging behavior. It also teaches people how to calm their mind and body, so they can feel better, think more clearly, and make better decisions. Cognitive therapy also teaches people how certain thinking patterns are causing their symptoms. This is accomplished by giving people a distorted picture of what's going on in their life, and making them feel anxious, depressed or angry for no good reason.(Francis, 2000) When people are in behavior therapy and cognitive therapy, it provides them with various tools for stopping their symptoms and getting their life on a more satisfying track. In cognitive therapy, the therapist takes an active part in solving a patient’s problems. He or she doesn't settle for just nodding wisely while the patient carries the whole burden of finding the answers they came to therapy for initially. Cognitive therapists teach patients to identify their negative thoughts, recognize their erroneous nature and devise a co... Free Essays on Cognitive Therapy Free Essays on Cognitive Therapy Cognitive behavioral therapy helps improve people’s moods and behavior by changing their way thinking; also, how they interpret events and talk to themselves. This form of psychotherapy helps guide people into thinking more realistically and teaches them coping strategies to deal with their depression. Cognitive therapy is in most cases a short- term treatment that can have long-term results. I will discuss depression in adolescence and how it effects personal adjustments, which may often continue into adulthood. I will also discuss depression in the elderly. There are different approaches to treating depression, the main approach that will be discussed is cognitive behavioral therapy, which is a way to break the cycle for depression. What is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy? Cognitive behavior therapy helps people break the connections between difficult situations and their habitual reactions to them. This can be reactions such as fear, rage or depression, and self-defeating or self-damaging behavior. It also teaches people how to calm their mind and body, so they can feel better, think more clearly, and make better decisions. Cognitive therapy also teaches people how certain thinking patterns are causing their symptoms. This is accomplished by giving people a distorted picture of what's going on in their life, and making them feel anxious, depressed or angry for no good reason.(Francis, 2000) When people are in behavior therapy and cognitive therapy, it provides them with various tools for stopping their symptoms and getting their life on a more satisfying track. In cognitive therapy, the therapist takes an active part in solving a patient’s problems. He or she doesn't settle for just nodding wisely while the patient carries the whole burden of finding the answers they came to therapy for initially. Cognitive therapists teach patients to identify their negative thoughts, recognize their erroneous nature and devise a co...

Free Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Free Market - Essay Example It has been highly controversial whether free market is suitable for the present world economy. It is still unknown which economic policy would solve the fundamental economic problems of the present economy. It is time to analyze whether the concept of mixed economy would find success in this present world. It is again controversial up to what extent the governmental regulation must be allowed in a mixed economy. Moreover, it is also important to review the amount of access of free market and its validity and significance in the present world economy. It will be useful if we analyze the concepts of Adam Smith and Milton Friedman and the opposition of Keynes and Karl Marx in the context of the present world economy. Adam Smith advocated the concepts of free market and explained in his work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations the mechanism that he believed being operated in the economic society. According to Adam Smith, individuals strive to attain wealth by aiming only on their personal gain. These individuals however cannot consume everything that they produce and has to share it with others who value it and pay the price for it. So the public interests of the society can be satisfied by this system of division of labor and free market. Smith, the father of economics, have authored the invisible hand which is able to explain all sorts of economic phenomena in all fields. The book has included the valuable views of Adam Smith about free market. Adam Smith explained the concept and told that businessmen or entrepreneurs always aim for the best profit and consumers always do aim for the lowest price. Consumer choice thus would become the force that influences the price in the market. Consumers would demonstrate their demand or negligence towards products that appear in the market. These consumer demand or pressure would thus encourage entrepreneurs or producers to invest more on the same product and bring more of them into the markets. T hus it is nothing but the consumer demand that pressurize the producers to invest their money into the profitable industry. Thus industry brings the most demanded goods to the markets and consumers also receive their favorable products, thereby resulting in the general economic well being of the society. Adam Smith considered this market-based system as a great advantage as people are forced to respond (producers) according to the want and demands of other people. Free market is the concept in which price is regulated by the corresponding demand or supply. Trade and business would be completely voluntary in free market concept without any interference from force, rule or fraud. In a free market system, the theory of supply and demand would rule the economy bringing the prices of the products towards a typical equilibrium state that would balance the demand and the supply. Another major advocate of free market system is Milton Friedman. He opined that that there is a close and direct relationship between economic freedom and economic growth. Milton Friedman, the American economist (famous for his macro and microeconomics) was of the opinion that free markets would challenge and destroy away political centralization and political control completely. In his book, Capitalism and Freedom he mentioned that the role of a government in free market economy is to maintain political and social freedom. Freidman highly supported free market concept and explained several of its advantages. According to him, â€Å"The most important single central fact about a free market is that no exchange takes place unless both parties benefit.† He opined that the one and only way to get a lot of people cooperate together jointly is through free market. As a

The Syndrome Of Colorectal Cancer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

The Syndrome Of Colorectal Cancer - Essay Example After getting the report of the medical test, John and his wife Carol learned that he was suffering from colorectal cancer. John was appalled at the diagnosis as he was completely unprepared for such a result. A doctor suggested him a surgeon who particularly dealt with such kind of diseases and offered hope towards fighting and surviving this grave disease. The surgeon explained the procedure of treatment and therapy that John needed to undergo before and after the surgery. After performing a surgery, the physician discussed the means in relation to the disease from which John was suffering. The physician broke the news to John that he was gravely affected with the high level of cancer in his abdominal. John undertook several tests to determine the accuracy of the statement made by the physician and found it to be true (Australian Government Cancer Australia, 2012). The joint report published by the ‘Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW)’ and the ‘Australasian Association of Cancer Registries (AACR)’ focuses on delivering a thorough update regarding the changes in cancer endurance in Australia since 2001, when the first national cancer report was published. It delivers a trend statistics regarding the survival of persons affected by invasive cancer from 1982-1986 to 1998-2004, as well as analyzes the survival outcome in terms of age, geographic provinces, sex, and socioeconomic status. During the period of 1982-2004, the statistical reports concerning the frequency of invasive cancer in Australia provided an account of 1.6 million cases. This was the period when cancer-related survivals were examined in terms of their gender, age and period of treatment, as well as survival period, geographic provinces and socioeconomic status. Moreover, this report also provided the prevalence calculation regarding all the se aspects (Alteri et. al., 2011). In Australia, during 2007, the risk of colorectal cancer was identified at the age of 85 which was 10 for men and 14 for women. This risk was noticeable and increased from the age of 45.

Case Study (Forecasting and ERP) Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

(Forecasting and ERP) - Case Study Example As taken from the case study, the reason of intermittent demand design is the variation in the customer demand because of the internet. Customers are well aware about the arrival in the market of new models of air-conditioners. COOL Air-Cond. is not financially strong enough to keep a stock of all latest models of the air-conditioners. For measuring the changing customer demands, the Company should approximate the customer requests by the co-efficient of variation of the demand of customers seeking new models. Customer requests for different new models of wide range air-conditioners are the root cause of erratic demand. For this, it is preferable to employ a totally time series approach, which is normally connected to a demand distribution so that stock levels could attain increased percentages of target customers. C. For approximating forecast error rates, Bill should use Croston’s method, which fulfils the intermittent demand needs. It is a relatively correct way in terms of mean square errors when the average demand interval crosses 1.25 review times. It is noticed that forecast perfection in totality is strong to the selection of break-points above 1.25 but very less to values below 1.25 (Boylan & Syntetos, 2008). D. In such a scenario when forecasts can be regularly intermittent, high or low, in the absence of any early pointer, demand distribution measure can be the most suitable alternative. It is because it can help in setting stock levels for achieving high percentages in accurate forecasting. It is done by making distributional assumptions of demand by classifying demand as ABC. For instance, A and B product types could be normally distributed as their demand is forecasted accurately but C product types could be Poisson. In actuality some product types have relatively erratic demand than Poisson, which is scattered. By using the Poisson dispersion index, which is the ratio of

Music in Casablanca Analysis

Music in Casablanca Analysis Casablanca is one of the classic love stories in American movie history. There are many ingredients are combined to make the successful film. One of main contributions that is the music of Casablanca and it should not be underrated. Max Steiner, one of the great Hollywood composers, drew upon the leitmotif and achieved many subtle effects of mood-painting and psychological commentary in his score. In this essay, one of scenes of Casablanca that will be discussed is about the conversation of Rick and Ilsa in Ricks bar after the Paris flashback from Ilsas entry. Timothy E. Scheurer mentioned in The Music of Casablanca that Max molded the theme to the situation, changing keys, augmenting the melody, altering its rhythms, and modifying its harmonic structure at points to emphasize its dramatic qualities. In his hands, it became a symbol of fulfilment, a melody expressing the happiness that comes with love. The music, As Time Goes By, originally wrote by Herman Hupfield, which has reorganized in the scene by Max. People may inevitably think of it when they remember the film. He transformed As Times Goes By to a number of contrasting variations. Audience may focus more on the actions or conversations of the characters and they may be attracted from others effect from the film. Also, they may say there was music but they did not notice about it and in fact that Max composed cues in numerous indication of instrumentation. They are given a certain feeling or emotion of the scene from what the producers are trying to express it such as music. The scene is about at the end of recalling Ricks memories in Paris; he is sitting at a cafà © table in the foreground and knocking over his glass of bourbon. Next, camera pans to the right and repositions him on the left and suddenly, the door is opened in the far distance in the middle of the screen. There is no music before Ilsa comes in which may indicate that both Rick and viewers are waiting for someone. The silence enhances the sinking feeling. In here, Max may attempt to give a break to audiences and leads them to get ready for this scene from the other. Until the door is opened, the music is begun and is played the Casablanca chord 2; the sinking chromatic scale (Marks, M. p. 167, 177), which give a sinking feeling to audience at the first point after the Paris flashback. It seems there are something will happen and it happens, Ilsa comes to see Rick and Rick seems waiting for so long. Martin Marks said that the chord in the first measure is marked for woodwinds, vibraphone, harp, piano, celesta, and horns; above the chord Steiner has written that it should be orchestrated like Reel 5, Part 4 (the mentioned scene in this essay). In other words, the whole music in this scene is played by these instruments or maybe more than these such as strings. However, the music is subdued which gives the effect on audiences is subliminal. Also, audiences when watch the whole scene, they can reach the counterpoint to the dialogues with the music. Max has even re-used the Casablanca chord 2 in Reel 9, Part 2, which the scene is Ilsas second return to Rick. The manipulation of the music is similar to Reel 4, Part 7, which the scene Ilsa first see Rick. In order to maintain the unity of the whole story, Max fragmented the music and put it into different scene to bring out different motion. Back to the scene, Ilsa appears wearing a white coat and scarf and she comes to Rick as he expected but she heightens his resentful feeling by telling him that she would not have came if she had known he was in Casablanca. Then, Ilsa tries to speak to him but he is sarcastic and refuses to listen to her explanations. With tears in her eyes, Ilsa attempts to explain her past history. Its about a girl who had just come to Paris from her home in Oslo. At the house of some friends she met a man about whom shed heard her whole life, a very great and courageous man. He opened up for her a whole beautiful world full of knowledge and thoughts and ideals. Everything she knew or even became was because of him. And she looked up to him and worshipped him which a feeling she suppose was love. Audiences may learn or guess that Ilsas admiration for Victor Laszlo is the source of her love for him. Ilsa is forced to face the fact that she has other loyalties and attachments that she should not aband on. Her life seems to lack independent action and it makes her separation from Rick appear more tragic than Ricks separation from her. For Rick, he hopes Ilsa is telling him the man who is Rick himself but ironically, he is forced to recognize the nature of the divided loyalties that Ilsa has to face and she choose to be with Laszlo. Obviously, Ilsa cares for Victor and is torn between the two men. She thought that she would never see him again. Audiences may appreciate the position in which Ilsa finds herself. Rick denigrates Ilsa to the level of a promiscuous. Ilsa thought that Rick would listen to her but he did not. The music is played with some heavy bass instruments, meanwhile, he continuous with his bitter dialogue, Tell me, who was it you left me for? Was it Laszlo or were there others in between? Or arent you the kind that tells? After that, Ilsa is with a tear running down her cheek and leaves Rick without further word. The sinking chord is playing again when Ilsa leaves Rick. Audiences are given a sympathy feeling for Ilsa that she should not be treated in this way because of her loyalty. On the other hand, they understand why Rick is being so cynical that he could not hold his love. When their conversation started, Max made the music in slow tempo and maintained in a quite high pitch. Marks showed that the Ricks bitter dialogue is with the variation 6 of As Times Goes By, Doom. Then, it is Ilsas turn to speak and tell her story and the instruments such as string and harp are stood out to present its feminine, which accompanies by what Ilsa is wearing (Virgin Mary wrap and mothers-like wearing) and the photographic effect on her which gives a blurring effect and spotlights are on her made her eyes are sparkling to made her so feminine. It seems Ilsa is still beautiful and attractive to Rick. When Ilsa is telling about her story, the background music also contains Laszlo Marseille and it may indicate that Ilsas life has already been with Victor and she cannot abandon Victor. It is hard for audiences to hear the music because Max has subdued it and audiences may recognize it unconsciously. As Times Goes By and Marseille is blended together may indicate a tale of two men vying for the same womans love in a love triangle. At the end of this scene, the music is again orchestrated as same as the beginning of it. It shows a clear entrance and exit of the scene with well organized music that audiences would know when the other scene is begun. To aspect of religious, the subconscious of Ilsas identity is shown to audiences and Rick as an angel of motherhood as a transfiguration. When Rick speaks again, music is played in low pitch and audience may hear the bass to perceive the identity of masculine, heroism. Audiences may learn that why Rick becomes a cynical man who is assumed a powerful man in Casablanca. When he is reminiscing the time in Paris, in which he was a more optimistic, more romantic and less cynical man. The flashback scene is an important cue to show why Rick is being so mean to Ilsa in this scene. The music is reinforced Ricks emotion inner his heart when he see Ilsa again. And now, audience know that Rick is drunk at this time, not thinking clearly and they know nothing about what Ilsa experienced. Audiences may tend to stay impartial until more of the story is revealed. The flashback has brought us to a point where we know enough about Rick to at least understand his motivations and viewers are better abl e to pass a judgment on him. In this scene, it seems that it is the time to show the truth why their relationship is unfulfilled. The music enhanced their feelings, sadness, anger and regretfulness to audiences. Scheurer said in The Music of Casablanca that we never hear the song played all the way through in one sitting in the film. As Rich and Ilsas love is fated to be never completely fulfilled, so the song presents itself to the viewers is fragments and is never complete. At the end of the scene, Max manipulated the music deliberately to be fragmentary at the beginning when Ilsa comes in and at the end when Ilsa ultimately left Rick again. The music is also used to be a connective to the past in which that sense of fulfilment was at hand but hand slipped away again. For its songs history, As Times Goes By is first published in 1931. It was perfectly applied to the film because of its evocation of the past. The melody in minor harmonic can deliver a message of a sense of bittersweet and nostalgia longing. Furthermore, in 1943, based on trends in popular music and theatre, during this time, the song with some nostalgia is certainly received warmly by movie audience. The song is worked musically and lyrically which speak of love eternal. Rick and Ilsas romance had made their own in the post with the song. Graphic score is also drawn in order to analysis its music effects the mood of the narrative. The whole sequence lasts for about 3 minutes. I have heard several times of the music with and without watching it. It gives a big difference. When I heard the music with watching it, I would focus more on what Rick and Ilsa are talking about. The volume of music is turned down when the conversations is started. The conversation is clearly to be heard the explanation of their relationship between Rick and Ilsa. However, sometimes, there are some strings and harps are played in high pitch. The most recognizable sound is played at the beginning and at the end of the sequence. When I hear the music without watching, it seems more music is coming out, for example, As Time Goes By is played by string and Marseille also can be heard. Music is constructed to convey the characters emotion perfectly. To conclude, according to Scheurer, It is to Steiners credit that, despite having so much of the score dictated by diegetic music (As Time Goes By and The Marseillaise especially), he was able to craft a score that has his indelible stamp. He took the source music and wove it into the leitmotif structure very effectively, and in the process, he transformed the songs. They seem larger, greater, and better pieces of music than we might think they are. This happens, no doubt, because the themes work in conjunction with other superb filmic elements (acting, directing, lighting, etc.). I agree with its statement that although music is an important element in producing a film, but it is not least to construct or make up a theme with other vital elements such as star power of Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergnan, colourful characters, remarkable acting performances, effective direction, skilled cinematographary and a good score. However, Max Steiner approached to catch as many cinematic detai ls as he can; not only in this discussed scene, but also to keep the music moving forward in the whole film. As Martin Marks said, Max shows a keen understanding of the narratives overall and musics ability to enhance it.

Social Values in Transition: 1789-1815, Alternate Visions :: American America History

Social Values in Transition: 1789-1815, Alternate Visions Saint-Simon wanted to see scientists at the top of the political structure. He proposed the idea of a scientific priesthood of the Religion of Newton. Later he added industrialists and artists to the religion believing that emotions must be satisfied as well as reason. Francois Marie Charles Fourier wanted to liberate human nature. His theory was: What makes men happy? Their passions. What makes them miserable? The inhibition of their passions. Therefore the legislator must create a society in which men and women can indulge their passions to the full yet safely and harmoniously. Even destructive passions could be employed as butchers. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. In it he states, " We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Government is instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the government. That whenever any form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to abolish it, and to institute new Government . . . . . " Robert Owen built a model industrial community with decent housing for the worker's, schools, sanitation, and non-profit making stores. In the factories he owned the working conditions were measured against the prevailing standards. They were almost humane. He was trying to improve the worker's lot, while making a nice profit in the meantime. Owen may be regarded as the founder of co-operative socialism. Thomas Malthus argued that any attempt to feed the starving masses only increased the masses and their misery. He believed that mathematical laws presided over human affairs. However when he applied them to the procreative process, the results were glum. In his opinion the gap between the supply of food and the number of people to be fed was bound to increase, for population increased at a geometrical ratio and food at a arithmetical ratio. There was a bright side however; there would be wars, famines, epidemics and so on. But that would not be enough.